Edited by J M Fladmark

Papers presented at the 2001 Heritage Convention

The focus of these papers, and the discussion that will spring from them, is the study of our heritage – to help us understand where we came from, what we are doing now, and where we are going.

Lord Balfour of Burleigh, 1993

These are the words used by Lord Balfour, founding Chairman of the original academic initiative, to express the ethos behind the first conference book in this series. Although he holds the peerage of Balfour of Burleigh, his name remains Robert Bruce – a direct descendant of the illustrious Scottish King, Robert the Bruce, and thereby a man of Viking stock through Norman ancestry. This background, combined with a long career as an industrial leader, gives his words special meaning. Along with the virtues of working across cultures and disciplinary boundaries, he also stressed the need for an understanding of how to ‘generate income and stimulate enterprise’. Little did he realise that within a decade he would become godfather to a joint venture spanning the North Sea, seeking further development of the same philosophical ideas.

Against this background, and with the shared vision of promoting collaboration across disciplines and national boundaries, it was decided that ‘identity’ would be the conference theme of 2001. It represents an issue at the root of how New Europe is evolving, and the key questions we asked ourselves in planning the conference programme were: Was the shaping of Northern Europe governed by military might, by trade, by Christian doctrine or by democratic ideals? How has cross-cultural exchange between Scandinavia and the British Isles shaped our historic identities? What impact have modern institutions, tourism and commercial marketing had on national identity?

The purpose was to generate fresh cross-cultural understanding of history and identity, through a reciprocal view of past relationships from the periods of Viking expansion, Hanseatic trade and cultural enlightenment, concluding with discussion about the forces that shape national identities today. The plan was to explore how this understanding can form the basis for a new approach to cultural policy, national profile building and competitive business in the global economy of tomorrow. A source of particular inspiration was the exhibition by the Smithsonian Institution that opened in 2000. Entitled, Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, it was deliberately designed to change popular perceptions about the Vikings by focusing interpretation on their cultural heritage. Hillary Rodham Clinton wrote the preface to the exhibition publication, as the White House Millennium Council supported the initiative.

The book opens on the Smithsonian theme, with an essay by Jesse Byock telling the story of how Iceland was settled by Vikings from the end of the ninth century onwards. This turned into a major influx in the late ninth century, when local chieftains and thousands of followers fled Norway to claim their share of the ‘promised island’ in the North Atlantic. The land was there for the taking and they could be free citizens rather than be subject to the laws and taxes imposed within the new sovereign Kingdom of Norway that came into being in 872. Their resolve was to avoid subjugation under a single national monarchy, and they achieved it by convening the first Icelandic assembly of free men in 930. This was the Althing, the central institution in a system of regional and local Things that Byock presents as the dawn of modern parliamentary democracy.

He refers to it as a system with ‘proto-democratic and republican tendencies’, and its story has parallels with the later migration from Europe to North America after the Pilgrim Fathers sailed from England to the New World on the Mayflower in 1620. They fled from poverty and tyrannical governments, and those who followed later indulged in the largest landgrab in history. After a long period of conflict, their colonial masters withdrew. They declared independence on 4 July 1776 and adopted a republican system of government.

However, what happened in North America, can be regarded as a repetition of history. The same process of migration, land settlement and republicanism was pioneered on Iceland almost a millennium earlier. Byock has opened a new window on the history of governance and issued a challenge for those studying how political systems have evolved. Historically, the perception of the Nordic nations has been associated with rather unruly behaviour and warlike tendencies. This image would be radically altered if it were to be more widely appreciated that hands in the north first rocked the cradle of modern democracy.

In chapter two, Bjørn Myhre goes on to introduce the reader to Snorre Sturlasson. As author of the principal Norse Sagas in the thirteenth century, this Icelandic scholar did more than any other person to shape the historic identity of the Nordic peoples. The story focuses on Borre in Vestfold, the site of an impressive array of burial mounds from the Viking period. It was visited by Snorre, who identified the site as the necropolis of ancestors of the first High King of Norway, Harald Finehair. Later historians and archaeologists mostly concurred with this view, and Borre thus came to assume the status of a sacred place. Its position in national iconography was further consolidated during the period of national romanticism that flourished after separation from Denmark in 1814 and full independence in 1905. Not surprisingly, but to the embarrassment of later generations, Quisling’s Party used Borre as the parade ground for its national rallies during World War II. Myhre concludes with evidence from the latest archaeological excavations at Borre. Although remains of the ancestors of the first High Kings of Norway may be present, the original mounds predate establishment of the nation. The chieftains who were laid to rest there most likely represented both Danish and Norwegian interests seeking to maintain control of the territory around the Oslofjord.

Nordic historiography in the main starts with the period covered by Snorre. Historians have tended to favour national introspection, and their outward gaze has been mainly westwards. This has left a big hole between the history of classical antiquity and the Viking period. This cultural void has clearly appealed to Thor Heyerdahl’s curiosity and, as is his wont, he has in the last few years dedicated his considerable energies to a project seeking to throw new light on Snorre’s story about Odin (Woden). His chapter is a summary of his effort to ascertain the historical veracity of the Saga story that tells how Odin fled the Roman conquest in the Caucasus, led his people westwards through Germany and Denmark, and ended up settling at Sigtuna in Sweden.

Heyerdahl has been an exponent of the ‘diffusionist’ school of anthropology, believing that similarities in geographically separate societies are not necessarily coincidence but the result of contact stretching deep into the mist of pre-history. One of his favourites is the example of seashells (Gyprea moneta) from the Maldives in the Indian Ocean that was used as currency of exchange throughout Europe. In Scandinavia, they have been found at several sites. Another example is recent interest among archaeologists in the striking similarities in the style of prehistoric cave paintings found in Scandinavia and the Middle East.

As on other occasions in the past, Heyerdahl’s Odin project has provoked hostility among some academic historians in Norway. This in turn has encouraged him to pursue his ideas with even greater vigour. It is said that the bitter hostility of academic disputes comes from the stakes being so small. This may explain why some of his academic adversaries at home have indulged in rather unscholarly behaviour. However, debates on the Odin project have not ended in fisticuffs, as did actually happen when opposing theories about the history of Troy were debated at a recent scientific symposium at Tübingen University in Germany. Professor Frank Holb of Munich University challenged Tübingen’s Professor Manfred Korfmann, and the debate became so heated that participants chose to resolve the matter by exchanging blows.

Viewed in the wider context of recent European literature, Heyerdahl’s hypothesis seems quite reasonable. For example, the two recent books by Norman Davies – one on the history of Europe and the other on the British Isles – both express views compatible to those advanced by Heyerdahl. Furthermore, they demonstrate how different national histories appear when approached from a broader perspective than from the normal introverted view. Indeed, such works provide fresh insights into the ‘origin myths’ that lie at the core of books such as The Heritage of the Anglo-Saxon Race, published by M.H. Gayer in 1928.

In the following chapter, Anders Kjølberg turns his gaze firmly eastwards to explore the Heyerdahl hypothesis, and his general conclusion is that the Saga line on the migration of Odin and his people from the Black Sea to Sweden is historically plausible. He finds much of indicative support in sources not often referred to in Norwegian historiography. There are many reasons for this. One is that Russian historians, under both Tsarist and Communist rule, risked their careers and even their lives by serious study of the Scandinavian connection – in part due the possible interpretation that Russia had been culturally and politically subservient. The door was thus effectively closed to Scandinavian scholars interested in collaborative work, but this has now changed as shown by the keen participation of Russian historians and archaeologists in Heyerdahl’s project. Like their counterparts in other countries, Russian scholars have traditionally been preoccupied with their own internal history, but they have also had a strong interest in its links with the Middle East and Asian cultures. Thus, their literature has much to offer that is relevant to the story of Odin, and some of this material has been assiduously quarried by Kjølberg.

In his recent book, Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic Ocean and its Peoples, Barry Cunliffe has given us a visionary interpretation of a united culture on the western edge of Europe that has been shaped by voyaging out into the big ocean and up the rivers into the heart of the continent. Within this wider European context, the reader is next taken west over the sea to Ireland by Donnchadh O’Corráin. He paints a fascinating picture of the early encounters between the Irish and the Norse in the North Atlantic and discusses how this interfacing served to lay the foundations of their respective cultural identities. He concludes by describing how this legacy was an important factor in Norwegian nation building after the events of 1814 and 1905, identifying the works of Alexander Bugge and Carl Marstrander as especially important. It has been a source of frustration for medieval scholars outside Scandinavia that their contributions still remain inaccessible, and O’Corráin suggests that it is high time they are translated into English.

Edward Cowan moves on to introduce the reader to the arch-rivals of northern nation building, Scotland and Norway. They both achieved the first round of nationhood during the same century, but the Scots were ahead of the game by almost thirty years. Feeling constrained by the limitations of his inherited Dalriadian Kingdom, Kenneth MacAlpin conquered the southern Picts to become the first High King of Scotland in 843. Harald Finehair followed suit to become the first High King of Norway 872. The ensuing echoes of cross-cultural exchange throughout the British Isles are familiar to those who viewed the recent television programme and read the book by Julian Richards, entitled Blood of the Vikings.

A vivid account is given of the toing and froing between the two nations, the cultural infusions having gone in both directions. The Vikings held sway over the Hebrides for almost 500 years, and Orkney and Shetland remained under Norwegian sovereignty for well over 600 years. The Bishopric of Nidaros embraced these territories as well as the Isle of Man. At times they have fought the English together, at other times they have fought each other, and alliances have been formed and broken. Håkon IV was defeated at Largs in 1263, and three years later his son seceded the Western Isles and Isle of Man in the Treaty of Perth. There is a long history of seaborne trade, and chieftains and royals have fetched marriage partners from across the North Sea. Indeed, many clans claim Viking ancestry, and James VI chose Princess Anna of Denmark to be his Scandinavian bride. On his way to fetch her, it is claimed that he found time to father descendants in Norway, and Cowan’s chapter is thus aptly sub-titled ‘a legacy of battles and beddings’.

Cowan moves the time frame of his contribution into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, dwelling at some length on the cultural exchanges born out of a search for identity in both Scotland and Norway, as part of the wider European revival of romanticism. This provides the setting for the next chapter by John Purkis on William Morris, the avid medievalist who stands as one of the giants of English romanticism. He developed a great passion for Nordic culture, made visits to Iceland and translated several of the sagas into his own version of antiquated English. Indeed, he believed that the English could recapture their true identity through sharing his ‘Dream of the Northland’. Morris is mainly known for his wallpapers and pattern designs, for which he is truly famous, and his saga related output is mainly known by a relatively small number of enthusiasts. What is rather surprising is that the Nordic countries have not seen fit to use his fame and his leanings towards their culture for marketing purposes – a Nordic William Morris trail might turn out a winner.

The five categories of heritage equity to come out of the cross-cultural melting pot of the North Atlantic are the Christian faith, literacy, scholarship, music, song, poetry and democratic government. John Purser touches on all but the last, and his focus is on song and music. He refers to the remains of two Icelandic churches dedicated to St Columba, and tells of the destiny of church bells when no longer required for their intended use. He attributes Nordic literacy and word artistry to the Celtic influence, as well as the centres of learning and scholarship that flourished in Iceland.

The European Programme of Cultural Routes was launched in 1987, with support from the Council of Europe. In his contribution to the 1995 volume in this series, Sharing the Earth, entitled ’Routes to Cultural Identity’, Michel Thomas-Penette described the initiative as follows:

Its purpose was defined as encouraging Europeans to explore the routes where the European identity has been forged. It also aimed to point them towards new recreational opportunities in the form of alternative and cultural tourism. Its mission was to organise thematic routes, which would link different countries or regions of Europe.

Examples of route themes already in operation are the Santiago de Compostela and Francigena Pilgrim Ways, Silk and Textiles, Parks and Gardens, and the Baroque Routes. The chapters by Dan Carlsson and Gun Westholm deal with two themes relevant for this volume: the Vikings and the Hanseatic League. They provide an excellent summary of each theme, as well as conveying something about the interpretation required for making this history accessible to the public using the routes. In the sub-title of her chapter, Westholm also poses the intriguing question of whether history is about to repeat itself.

Architecture is the physical manifestation of culture and thereby a significant factor in the expression of identity. This is reflected in the fact that we already have the Council of Europe’s Baroque Route, and we are now presented with the sketch design for McKean’s Renaissance Route. In the next chapter, Charles McKean takes the reader on a tour of Northern Europe, revealing a shared heritage that he describes as an architectural ‘Esperanto with local accents’. In other words, rather than there being a unique Scottish architecture, there is just a Scottish manifestation of European architecture. This should be seen in the context of times when the Grand Tour of Europe was coming into fashion for those with the means to do it, as well as when the modern profession of architects began to emerge.

The people who shaped the identity of the nations of the north relied mainly on the highway of the seas for travel. The strong terrestrial orientation of life today, makes it difficult to fully appreciate that it was the sea that united people. The sea was their means of escape and access – in search of adventure, discovery, conquest and trade. On the open seas, they relied on the planets in the sky for navigation, but in sight of land they used seamarks and lighthouses: a rich and ancient heritage described in Monrad-Krohn’s chapter. Having outlined the history of this heritage, he explains the conservation issues facing us now that the original function of lighthouses has become redundant, and here we clearly have a strong candidate for the European Programme of Cultural Routes.

The next two chapters, by Brekke and Olson, are broader in their thematic approach, but both focus on seaways and are clear ‘route’ candidates. Brekke was editor of the highly successful Cultural Atlas of Hordaland, and he has applied this model to an ambitious project covering the North Atlantic area within the range of the Vikings’ cultural influence. He proposes a broad framework for heritage interpretation that focuses on human interaction with nature in relation to subject areas such as seaways, fisheries, landscapes, settlements and various manifestations of culture. Olsen recounts her involvement in the Blue Skagerrak project that concentrates on the coastal fairway along the Swedish coast of Bohuslän. It embraces the whole of coastal culture, including life of the mariner, seamarks, lighthouses, fisheries, communities, seascapes and cultural landscapes. Like Brekke, she suggests that the model be more widely applied, her idea being the whole of the North Sea area. An attractive feature of both projects is the possibility of an integrated route strategy for three modes of transport – walking, cycling and sailing.

Stephen Harrison presents an interesting case study of issues facing a destination within the European cultural route system. Like many other places, the Isle of Man had become a casualty of the collapse in the traditional seaside resort business, and Harrison explains how the island repositioned itself in the marketplace. This was achieved by focusing on the island’s key position on the western seaway, where the Nordic and Celtic cultures met to produce its unique heritage. Manx National Heritage assumed the central role for the equity audit to identify the island’s main assets in relation to markets. The secret of their success has been to dismantle professional barriers, so that all parties have worked together to produce an integrated strategy for interpretation, product development and marketing. In this new approach, strong emphasis has been placed on community involvement and listening to the customer. Harrison concludes by stressing the still untapped potential of Tynwald Hill, one of the most important sites relating to the history of democratic government in Northern Europe.

Symbols of identity are not confined to terra firma. They can also be given expression at sea, as shown by Bruce Peter in relation to passenger liners, which he calls ‘floating ambassadors for their countries of origin’. Starting with emigrant carriers of the nineteenth century, he examines the way design has been used since. Apart from livery and historic names, the early Scandinavian steamships looked much like those from other countries – not so surprising, since they were mostly built in Britain. However, with the advent of tourism and more luxurious Trans-Atlantic liners in the 1920s, interior design, decoration and cuisine were given a strong expression of national romanticism. As Scandinavian design and designers came to set international trends, this romanticism was translated into modernism with a national flavour. The author very much regrets that this is no longer the case as most cruise liners today have become floating theme parks.

The great paradox of Europe today is that there are two processes going in opposite directions. On the one hand, there are the political forces driving us fast towards a new superstate that will make the old nation states redundant by breaking them into regional units. Then there are places like Greenland, going in the opposite direction. It was granted home rule and left the European Union in 1979, and is still moving towards fully independent status. Using the southern part of the country as an example, Mark Nuttall describes the local dichotomy of people who still feel a close attachment to locality through their traditional ways of making a living from farming, fishing and hunting – the memoryscape of locality. This can cause identity confusion, when they try to relate to Greenlanders from other memoryscapes, and when they are obliged to embrace national institutions. This is especially the case when such institutions impose rules and regulations, say for fishing quotas that may put one locality against another, and thereby making it difficult for the disadvantaged party to feel loyalty towards the national authority.

The conundrums associated with the concept of memoryscape are put in a wider philosophical context by Peter Howard’s discourse on the resonance and dissonance of heritage. Dissonance can start by disputes about what is heritage, what type is most important and override the rest, who are its customers, to whom does it belong and where do territorial limits go. While nation states are being degraded, the regions of Europe are busy creating their newfound heritage that fits the jigsaw of the superstate. Indeed, his warnings about the danger of dissonance are resonant with what Thor Heyerdahl has to say in the foreword of this volume. On the positive side, Howard identifies the natural heritage of landscapes as being less prone to dissonance, and he feels that more serious attention should be given to heritage associated with participatory activity, performance and cuisine.

Branding of products and countries has become a vital force in creating heritage, and Simon Anholt examines the role of cultural equity in this intertwined process of shaping identity. Global brands that come from nowhere are less robust than those that can claim a national home, so the general rule is that a country of origin element in brand definition gives competitive leverage. The perception customers have of a country is accordingly an important factor, and product brands must therefore chime with the way people see the country of origin. Examples of long established ‘megabrand countries’ are America, Britain, France, Germany and Italy, due to a combination of cultural history and industrial prowess. This explains why some countries have sought to re-brand themselves. Japan is a successful example from the second half of the twentieth century, as evidenced by other countries now giving their products mock Japanese names. Anholt thus argues that brands represent a significant factor in communicating national identity, and he stresses that a country’s ability to contribute to global culture is a vital ingredient.

Like Anholt, Chris Powell has contributed an excellent essay that confirms the reciprocity of cultural identity and commercial branding. His focus is on how Britain is perceived by others today, dwelling on how such perceptions are formed through the media, films, the arts, by what is taught in schools, and not least from experience of British made products. Although often seen as old-fashioned and conservative, the ethos of its educational institutions and ways of doing business is underpinned by enduring values that still command respect. The language is strength, but can also give the impression of living in the shadow of America. On balance, he feels that Britain’s national image has retained its inherent strengths, asserting that there is nothing wrong with Britannia. The problem lies with the term ‘cool’ – a word of fashion that is destined to be passé in a space of time as short as the miniskirt. He concludes modestly with the following words of wisdom: ‘What we in Britain need to concentrate on for the future, like many other countries, is to mix the best of the new with the best of the old to create as strong a reputation as we deserve’.

Human capital is fast becoming the most important factor in the productive wealth of a country. In Norway, as Strømme Svendsen points out, human capital now represents over two thirds of the nation’s total capital, defined as representing knowledge, creativity, dexterity, skills and ability to act. Survival in the future will depend on ability to adapt from organisational models of command and control to more flexible systems that will effectively harness human capital. Focussing is on innovative entrepreneurs in the shipping industry, the author speculates on what are the factors that constrain and release various elements of human capital, and what conditions are required to secure long term stability for ventures created by entrepreneurs. Those who have survived and prospered, have become role models in their own countries. They have also made a strong contribution to global perceptions of national identity, as in the case of shipping entrepreneurs in Norway and Greece, as well as more recently in Hong Kong.

As with shipping entrepreneurs, complications may occur when staff from different cultural backgrounds find themselves working side by side, as is frequently the case for those employed by international companies trading in the global village. DiStefano and Ekelund have used cross-cultural psychology and interpretation of cultural knowledge to develop a model that will help overcome such situations. Its operative elements are mapping, bridging and integrating. The essence of this management tool is to identify differences, which are first ‘mapped’ to engender understanding of divergent value systems, leadership styles, personality traits and thinking modes. The next step is to find ways of ‘bridging’ the differences through communication to understand motivational stances, learning how to avoid points of direct conflict, not ascribing blame and seeking out areas where agreement exists. The third step is to ‘integrate’ by finding ways of managing the differences via joint participation, thereby resolving conflict, and then use respective strengths for collaboration around shared ideas.

The last chapter is by David Silbergh, who provides a most helpful outline of how environmental thinking has evolved since Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring was published in 1965. Central to this body of thinking are two concepts – ‘sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’. The former is really a set of philosophical precepts relating to intrinsic values and survival. It has so far mostly been applied to economic and environmental issues, but its relevance extends to communities, nations and cultures. Sustainable development is about economic activity and survival of heritage assets in the natural world. In practical terms, it is essentially a conceptual framework of analysis used to identify options of least environmental impact by economic development.

Silbergh takes the reader on a journey, making visits to key players and their output. Themes include the tragedy of the human tendency to consume today without regard for tomorrow, the doomsday scenario of those who question our ability to change so that humanity can survive on this planet, and the need to limit growth to avoid global collapse. Based on his own research, he lists ten key dimensions of sustainable development that are priorities for future work, several pointing in the direction of cultural heritage. Like the other contributing authors since 1993, David Silbergh has helped us towards the vision enshrined in the motto adopted for this series of books: ‘The future belongs to those with the vision to see it’.

Professor Magnus Fladmark

Robert Gordon University Aberdeen
The Heyerdahl Institute Norway

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